Measurement errors Measurement errors in network analysis can be separated into two categories: random and systematic errors. Both random and systematic errors are vector quantities. Random errors are non-repeatable measurement variations and are usually unpredictable. Systematic errors are repeatable measurement variations in the test setup. Systematic errors include impedance mismatch, system frequency response and leakage signals in the test setup. In most microwave measurements, systematic errors are the most significant source of measurement uncertainty. The source of these errors can be attributed to the signal separation scheme used. Numerous publications are available on vector network analyzer (VNA) calibration techniques. References [1], [2], [3], [4], [5], [6], [7] and [8] are just some of the pub- lished work. Agilent’s application notes: 1287-1, 1287-2 and 1287-3 also provide insights on VNAs and VNA error correction. It is recommended that a user be familiar with these calibration techniques and terminologies to get the maximum understanding from this application note.